American Psychological Association. "Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language." Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 4th ed. Washington: Amer. Psychological Assn., 1994. 46-60. This section on bias reduction in language offers general guidelines for specificity and sensitivity as well as examples of problematic and preferred language. Abstract and critique.

August, Eugene R. "Real Men Don't: Anti-Male Bias in English." The University of Dayton Review 18 (Winter/Spring 1986-87). Researcher for men's studies examines anti-male bias in English. Abstract and critique.

Bridwell-Bowles, Lillian. "Discourse and Diversity: Experimental Writing within the Academy." College Composition and Communication 43 (Oct. 1992): 349-68. Bridwell-Bowles uses her classroom as a laboratory for students' experiments with nontraditional styles of academic writing. Abstract and critique.

Bridwell-Bowles, Lillian. "Freedom, Form, Function." College Composition and Communication 46 (Feb. 1995): 46-61. Teachers and students must connect classroom writing with the outside world. Abstract and critique.

Cixous, Hèléne. "Laugh of the Medusa." Cixous attributes the silence of women to a Phallocentric ideology responsible for a feminine society that fears its own body. Abstract and critique.

Cleary, Linda Miller. "'I Think I Know What My Teachers Want Now': Gender and Writing Motivation." English Journal (Jan. 1996): 50+. Young women too often forgo their own purposes and interests in writing, losing their inner motivation for the process. Abstract and critique.

Fishman, Pamela. "Conversational Insecurity." Language: Social Psychological Perspectives. Eds. Giles, Robinson, and Smith (Oxford: Pergamon, 1980). Rpt. in The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. Ed. Deborah Cameron. London: Routledge, 1990. 234-41. Women's conversational style was originally believed to be caused by insecurity; recently though, it is thought to be caused by women's inferior social status. Abstract and critique.

Fox, Mem. "Men Who Weep, Boys Who Dance: The Gender Agenda Between the Lines in Children's Literature," Language Arts 70 (Feb. 1993): 84-88. Children's literature too often produces negative stereotypes of genders; Fox argues that writers need to be more aware of their characters' roles within the stories. Abstract and critique.

Freed, Alice. A professor of linguistics, Freed describes the difficulty of making students aware of the world of words around them. Abstract and critique.

Ivy, Diana K., et. al. " The Lawyer, the Babysitter, and the Student: Inclusive Language Usage and Instruction." Women and Language 18 (Fall 1995): 13+. Ivy's study urges educators to see the problems that arise with the use of exclusive language. Abstract and critique.

Jackson, Linda A. "Feminism: Definitions, Support, and Correlates of Support Among Female and Male College Students." Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 34 (May 1996): 687-74. Jackson's survey presents a catalogue of college students' views on feminism. Abstract and critique.

Jesperson, Otto. "The Woman." From Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin (London: Allen & Unwin, 1922). Rpt. in The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. Ed. Deborah Cameron. London: Routledge, 1990. 201-220. Long since discredited, this early speculation about "woman talk" suggests that although women tend to use better grammar than men, men generally have more extensive vocabulary and are more likely to be blunt and to the point. Abstract and critique.

Jett-Simpson, Mary, and Susan Masland. "Girls Are Not Dodo Birds! Exploring Gender and Equity Issues in the Language Arts Classroom." Language Arts 70 (1993): 104-8. By studying the stories children tell, language arts teachers can understand what needs to be done in the classroom to confront gender stereotypes. Abstract and critique.

Jones, Deborah. "Gossip: Notes on Women's Oral Culture." Women's Studies International Quarterly 3 (1980). Rpt. in The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. Ed. Deborah Cameron. London: Routledge, 1990. 242-50. Gossip is a staple of women's lives, and the study of gossip is a key to female subculture. Abstract and critique.

Kramarae, Cheris (Cheris Kramer). "Folk Linguistics: Wishy-Washy Mommy Talk." Psychology Today 8 (June 1974): 83-85. In a study of New Yorker cartoon pages, stereotypes of men's and women's language are exhibited. Abstract and critique.

Kramarae, Cheris, and Paula Treichler. "Words on a Feminist Dictionary" (Introduction to A Feminist Dictionary). Rpt. in The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. Ed. Deborah Cameron. London: Routledge, 1990. 148-59. The authors describe their work towards compiling a feminist dictionary of usage and terms. Abstract and critique.

Lakoff, Robin. "Extract from Language and Woman's Place" (New York: Harper & Row, 1973). Rpt. in The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. Ed. Deborah Cameron. London: Routledge, 1990. 221-33. Lakoff's thesis, since the subject of much critique, is that the polite, unquestioning language girls are taught when they are young eventually prevents them from gaining power. Abstract and critique.

Miller, Casey, and Kate Swift. "One Small Step for Genkind." The United States is a sexist society, but much of the sexism is hidden within everyday language occurrences that go largely unnoticed. Abstract and critique.

Ouellette, Laurie. "Building the Third Wave: Reflections of a Young Feminist." On the Issues (Summer 1992). Although many benefit from the feminist movements of the past, young women today are reluctant to be involved in feminism because they feel that the movement neither represents their concerns nor includes all women. Abstract and critique.

Richardson, Laurel. "Gender Stereotyping in the English Language." from The Dynamics of Sex and Gender. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. Many stereotypical attitudes about women are rooted in the English language. Abstract and critique.

Rule, Jane. "Lesbian and Writer: Making the Real Visible." New Lesbian Writing, ed. Margaret Cruikshank. San Francisco: Grey Fox, 1984. 96-99. A homosexual writer has more challenges to face than a heterosexual writer. Abstract and critique.

Schrof, Joannie M. "Feminism's Daughters: Their Agenda is a Cultural Sea of Change." U.S. News & World Report (1993, September 27): 68-72. The latest feminist movement is calling itself the Third Wave; it no longer stands for simple equal rights for women, but for a wide array of causes. Abstract and critique.

Schulz, Muriel R. "The Semantic Derogation of Woman." Rpt. in The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. Ed. Deborah Cameron. London: Routledge, 1990. 134-47. Positive and/or neutral words which refer to women have undergone gradual and predictable derogation--which lends a glimpse of male views of women both past and present. Abstract and critique.

Spender, Dale. Man Made Language. London: Pandora, 1980.

• "To Believe or Not to Believe?: Language/Sex Research." Chapter 1 of Man Made Language: 7-51. Research on language and sex has confirmed that males have a distinct advantage over words in the English language. Abstract and critique.
• "Constructing Women's Silence." Chapter 2 of Man Made Language: 52-75. Contrary to popular stereotype, women are hardly the more talkative sex; however, they are accused of talkativeness when participating as assertively or as often as men. Abstract and critique.
• "The Dominant and the Muted." Chapter 3 of Man Made Language: 76-105. Spender explores the domination of male-based knowledge. Abstract and critique.
• "Woman Talk: The Legitimate Fear." Chapter 4 of Man Made Language: 106-37. Due to the patriarchy of society, men feel threatened by "women talk," and have tried to discourage women who speak. Abstract and critique.
• "Language and Reality: Who Made the World?" Chapter 5 of Man Made Language: 138-62. The important triad--language, thought, and reality--and the relationship between each is reflected on in this article. The use of sexist pronouns in writing is also studied. Abstract and critique.
• "The Politics of Naming." Chapter 6 of Man Made Language: 163-90. The politics of naming are are biased towards males and signify females' inferior social status. Abstract and critique.
• "Women and Writing." Chapter 7 of Man Made Language: 191-233. Spender surveys the research on women and writing. Abstract and critique.

Steinem, Gloria. "The Politics of Talking in Groups: How to Win the Game and Change the Rules." Ms. 9 (May 1981): 43+. Steinem adresses the psychologist belief that choices in communication are due to personality, enlisting language research in refuting four popular misconceptions: that women talk more, that women are "gossips," that men like to talk in all-male groups, and that physiological differences limit women's vocal tones. Abstract and critique.

Tannen, Deborah. "'I'll Explain It to You': Lecturing and Listening." From: You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990. Men and women use different language styles and conversation techniques with one another that could possibly be avoided with better understanding. Abstract and critique.

Tannen, Deborah. "I'm Sorry, I Won't Apologize" The New York Times 21 July 1996: 34-35. An apology can fix an honest mistake, yet men seem to resist apologizing more than women, in part because apologies are perceived as a sign of weakness. Abstract and critique.

Tannen, Deborah. "The Power of Talk: Who Gets Heard and Why." Harvard Business Review (Sept.-Oct. 1995): 138-148. Tannen asserts that the difference in linguistic styles of men and women is due to socialization, and she applies that foundation to gender differences in the workplace. Abstract and critique.

Woolf, Virginia. "Women and Fiction." The Forum March 1929. Rpt. in The Feminist Critique of Language: A Reader. Ed. Deborah Cameron. London: Routledge, 1990. 33-40. This frequently-reprinted article by the novelist presents the many obstacles throughout history which have affected females' success as writers. Abstract and critique.

© English 210 students of J Paul Johnson, Winona (MN) State University, 30 January 1997